Marquis de Lafayette

If you ever travel to Washington, DC, you are quite familiar with Lafayette Park.  Have you ever wondered who was the man that inspired our country's leaders to name a park near the White House after him?  Many know that the French aided the United States when it rebelled against Great Britain, but few know the great sacrifices many made when they came over here.  The Marquis de Lafayette was one of the Frenchmen who not only risked his life, but used his own money to help our troops - to feed them, clothe them, and train them into good soldiers.

Marquis de Lafayette

The Marquis de Lafayette defied not only his family, but his government when he decided to join the Americans in their battle for freedom. Even though he knew his father-in-law would be upset, he was determined to make his mark in the world.  He had no formal training on the battlefield, but he joined the Continental Army as an officer.  “You will be astonished, my dear papa, by what I am about to tell you, but I have given my word, and you would not have respected me if I had gone back on it.”

On June 9, 1776, the Marquis de Lafayette signed an oath of allegiance.

“I, the Marquis de Lafayette, major general in the Continental Army do acknowledge the United States of America to be Free, Independent and Sovereign States, and declare that the people thereof owe no allegiance or obedience to George the Third, King of Great Britain; and I renounce, refuse and abjure any allegiance or obedience to him; and I do swear that I will, to the utmost of my power, support, maintain and defend the said United States against the said King George the Third, his heirs and successors, and his or their abettors, assistants and adherents, and will serve the said United States in the office of major general which I now hold, with fidelity, according to the best of my skill and understanding.”

Lafayette's oath of allegiance to the United States

His Early Life:

 Gilbert de Lafayette was born on September 6, 1757.  His father died during the Seven Years War before Lafayette was even two years old.  He never even knew his father and was raised by his grandmother, aunts, and a private tutor while his mother went to Paris to make proper connections for her young boy. He inherited his titles and lands when he was barely two years old.  When he was eleven, he traveled to Paris to become a gentleman and learn about court manners.  When he was only 13, his mother died, then his grandfather.  He became an extremely wealthy boy.  His great-grandfather enrolled him in a military academy, little realizing what path he was sending Lafayette.  He joined the Black Musketeers as a cadet. While in school, he studied with the comte d’Artois who would later become the king of France.  When he was only 16 he was married to Adrienne (the duc d’Ayen’s second daughter) on April 11, 1774.  His wife was only 14.

He was made a lieutenant in the Noailles Dragroons.  He was promised a commission as a captain when he turned 18 years old.  He and his wife had a daughter, Henriette.  When there were cuts in military spending, he became a man with a commission but no experience.

Louis XVI

Marie Antoinette

His military career:

When he was barely 18, he had dinner with the duke of Gloucester.  While they were dining, they men spoke about the American rebellion.  Lafayette realized he had man similarities with the men.  “When I first heard of [the colonists] quarrel, my heart was enlisted.”

When he spoke to some of his compatriots, he realized many of them felt as he did about them.  The France longed to pay England back for taking Canada during the Seven Years War (we called it the French and Indian War).  When he spoke to some of his friends, he realized they also wanted to fight for American independence.  France begins to offer volunteers to enlist.  The Marquis really wanted to do it with them.  He is introduced to Silas Deane is recruiting Frenchmen to join the cause.  Baron Johann de Kalb is helping to recruit the volunteers.  When Lafayette joins, he is the first soldier who is an aristocrat to join.  Lafayette is full of ideas and he convinces the baron that because of his status, he should be at least a general (he hopes his high rank will appease his father-in-law and smooth the way for him to get permission to go.). The baron speaks with Silas Deane, the Patriot who has come recruiting Frenchmen and the man agrees.  Lafayette is promised a commission as a major general, hoping his high rank would save him or/and the life the patriots by supplying goods.  On December 7, 1776, the contract is drawn up.

Lafayette charging on the battlefield

Unfortunately, when France learns so many young men are leaving to fight in the war, the king is furious.  Some are too young (even Lafayette at the age of 19 is considered under age and must ask permission).  The king orders the ports closed to ships leaving and that any man found leaving should be arrested.  Lafayette is determined to leave so he uses some of his great fortune to purchase a ship – La Victoire – to transport many of the volunteers.  He has the ship refitted and prepared to depart. When he reaches the ship, they travel to San Sebastian in Spain before a messenger from the king reaches them.  He hopes to convince the king of his cause (after all, France is supporting the patriots secretly, so why not let them go and have a glorious victory?).  The baron does not want Lafayette to change his mind, so he sends his own messenger stating the king will support him and that ALL of Paris thinks he is quite the adventurer.  (This is far from the truth).  On April 26, 1777, La Victoire finally leaves for the American colonies.  It took 54 days to travel across the ocean.

Independence Hall

East Conference Room

When Lafayette reaches the colonies, he lands on a beach in South Carolina, far from the town of Charleston which is being blockaded by British ships.  Lafayette is first laughed at, but once he explains he has a ship full of supplies for the colonists, they take him in and celebrate him and all the Frenchmen who have arrived.  His ship is unloaded and sent back to France for more supplies (all of which he uses his own money to purchase for the colonists).  Then Lafayette and his men travel to Philadelphia to speak to the Continental Congress and bring their letters of intent from Silas Deane.

George Washington

Thomas Jefferson

When they reach Philadelphia on July 27^th, they are first turned away.  An influx of volunteers from foreign countries has arrived over the past year and they do not need any more foreign officers.  Disappointed, Lafayette is determined (as any young teenager would be) and he decides he will just return again to plead his case.  He doesn’t need to because Congress sends for him, deciding an officer who is titled like the marquis will be a valuable asset in the war and perhaps France will send more help.  When Lafayette speaks with Congress he states:  “I have the right to exact two favors: one is to serve at my own expense and the other is to serve as a volunteer.” 

Congress finally agrees he can serve and they accept his pledge, but they only let him keep his rank of major general because of his noble status.  They also will not give him command of his own troops because he has never been in battle before.  George Washington likes the young Frenchman and decides to take him under his wing, allowing the man to work with him, but tells Lafayette, he will not get a command until he decides the young man is ready for it.  The two men form a comfortable companionship – like a father and son.  In their letters over the years, one can read the fondness they have for each other.

Room with King Louis' portrait

Room with Marie Antoinette's picture

Lafayette’s first experience with battle comes at Brandywine in Pennsylvania.  The battle is intense and the young Frenchman tries to keep the patriots from retreating too quickly.  He realizes they cannot be captured and leads them to safety.  In the exchange, he is wounded in the leg, but even with the wound, he continues to keep his men safe.  Washington meets up with Lafayette in Chester, where the young man is organizing his men to defend a bridge at Chester Creek, refusing to give it up to the British.  More than 1000 men are wounded or killed in the Battle of Brandywine, but only 500 British.  Washington orders the young man to get his leg treated.  He sends Lafayette to Philadelphia to recuperate, but when he learns the city will be attacked, he orders the evacuation.  Congress heads to York and Lafayette is sent to Bethlehem for more recuperation.  On September 26, 1777, Philadelphia is occupied by the British.

When Lafayette returns to command, he asks to join General Greene who will be checking to see how strong the British outposts around Philadelphia are.  Lafayette is given a command of 400 riflemen for the task.  They attack the outpost and push the British back.  Washington lauds him for his bravery in the exchange.  Now Washington feels the young man is capable of handling his own division.  At the age of 20, Lafayette becomes the youngest general in the Continental Army (and it’s not honorary any longer).  Lafayette picks a division of Virginians in honor of Washington’s home.

Lafayette 

During the upcoming winter, Washington and his troops decide to remain at Valley Forge.  The location is ideal to watch over the British.  It is on a plateau, it is heavily wooded so the trees can be used to build log huts, and it is easily defended against attack.  While the troops are there, Lafayette longs to travel to Canada, to retake New France from the British (land taken during the Seven Years War).  He feels his country will be excited if he takes this back for them.  Unfortunately, when he reaches Albany, he discovers the troops and supplies are not enough.  Instead, he joins General Schuyler who is traveling to speak to the Six Nations (the Iroquois).  The Native Americans are impressed by the Frenchman and call him Kayewla – after an Iroquois warrior. 

By the time he returns to Valley Forge, it is overflowing with supplies and a German – Baron von Steuben is there.  The baron is whipping the ragtag patriots into shape, teaching them how to march and maneuvers.  While at Valley Forge, Lafayette wrote home to his family and friends to support the patriots.  During this time, France finally recognized the United States as a free country.  Silas Deane’s brother brought the news to Lafayette that the two countries had signed a treaty.

Baron von Steuben

On May 18, 1778, he was sent to see what was happening in Philadelphia.  Washington heard rumors that Howe was being replaced by Clinton who would bring thousands of troops with him.  Lafayette took 2500 troops and 5 cannons to check out the situation.  He also brought along 47 Oneida Indians who had joined him from Albany.  Lafayette camped on Barren Hill, about 2 miles from Philadelphia.  While he was there, a deserted left his camp and snuck into Philadelphia to tell Howe of the patriots.  On May 20^th, the British came up from behind and attacked the men.  Howe sent 8000 men, thinking he would capture the Frenchman and bring him back to England as a prize.  Lafayette managed to escape across the Schuykill River with his men.  Word had reached Washington who sent von Steuben to help Lafayette.  Howe was forced to retreat.  Lafayette returned to Barren Hill the next day.  They discovered the British evacuated Philadelphia once they learned French troops would be arriving on ships to blockage the city and kick the British out.  Clinton wanted to leave before the French arrive.  As the British are leaving, Lafayette is told to follow them and annoy them.  As they are leaving, Lafayette’s men shoot at them along the way and generally make their life miserable.  The British make it to Monmouth Courthouse in New Jersey.  As Lafayette and his men are getting closer, the British sneak away under cover of night.

Lafayette still wants to travel to Canada and retake New France.  He asks to travel to France to speak with the King of France to ask for even more assistance, knowing if he does, he will succeed.  Benjamin Franklin, who is the ambassador to France, is told to work with Lafayette to garner more help.  On February 6, 1779, he returns to France for the first time in 2 years.  He is placed under house arrest for 8 days as punishment for defying the king’s orders when he first left France. Lafayette writes an apology to the king and waits.  The king finally accepts his apology and even praises him for his bravery.  He has returned a hero.  Unfortunately, Canada is not an option.  He asks for other assistance.  France agrees to send troop but they are not given to Lafayette.  Instead, the troops are given to a more seasoned man – the comte de Rochambeau.  Lafayette would merely be the liaison between Rochambeau and Washington.

While in France, he learns his first daughter, Henriette had died while he was in Valley Forge.  His wife gives him a son who is named George, after Lafayette’s mentor – George Washington.

On March 5, 1780, Lafayette leaves France with part of the French fleet and a promise the rest would follow.  On April 27, 1780, they land in Massachusetts.  He rejoins Washington in Morristown, New Jersey.  Rochambeau does not bring the rest of the troops and ships right away.  Washington is disappointed, but once he listens to the older Frenchman’s ideas, he agrees.  The French will break the British blockage first and then send the rest of the troops.  While waiting, Lafayette is given command of 2000 troops.  He gives them new uniforms and trains them every day.  He longed to see more battle, but Washington warned him to be patient.  Washington felt the battles should be focused in the South, not the North. 

Comte de Rochambeau

He sent Lafayette to Virginia with 1200 men.  He was to go against Benedict Arnold, capture him, and if need be, hang the traitor.  He reached Richmond and fought the British attack.  He managed to fool the British that he had twice the number of men by firing off volley after volley in quick succession.  General Cornwallis decides to go help Arnold and sends troops north.  Benedict Arnold escapes north.  Cornwallis exclaims “The boy cannot escape me.  I shall now proceed to dislodge him from Richmond.”  He vows to capture Lafayette and send him to London in chains.  Lafayette is outnumbered 4 to 1.  He retreats to the Richmond countryside to await reinforcements, but wreaks havoc on Cornwallis by sniping at the troops who are trying to find him.  He picks off the troops, sabotages his advance, and tricks them at every turn.

Cornwallis did not capture him!

Instead, Cornwallis is given orders to more to the Virginia coast to create a port for the British to reach Philadelphia.  Lafayette follows Cornwallis and continues to harass him as he goes.  Because of this move, word spreads across the countryside that Lafayette is chasing Cornwallis who is seen as retreating instead.  In July, the reinforcements finally join Lafayette.  Cornwallis is stopped in Yorktown.  Lafayette surrounds Cornwallis and continues to strike out at the general, making the British totally confused by the attacks. 

Washington learns that 29 French ships are coming.  Rochambeau leaves New York and heads south to join Lafayette and Washington at Yorktown.  He meets Washington in New Jersey first and they head for Yorktown.  Over 20,000 men face Cornwallis at Yorktown.  The siege starts on October 9, 1781.  Washington assigned Redoubt #9 to the French and Redoubt #10 to be taken by Lafayette.  Unfortunately, Hamilton charged #10 and took it with little resistance.  Lafayette joined the French in capturing #9.  On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis asked for a truce.  On October 19^th, he surrendered.  The Revolutionary War was finally over and the Patriots had won, with assistance from Lafayette and other Frenchmen like Rochambeau.

Lafayette's cannon

Map of Yorktown

Redoubt #9

Redoubt #10

In January of 1782, Lafayette returned to France a hero.  He was celebrated wherever he went.  He returned to his wife, Adrienne.  They had another daughter, Virginie, who was named in honor of Washington’s home.  In 1784, he returned to America to see his good friend, Washington.  He traveled around the country meeting people and they all thanked him for his assistance.

He spent the rest of life working for liberty with his own people.  He was accused of treason.  When noblemen were being captured by the citizens and killed, he surrendered to France’s enemies.  He was imprisoned in Prussia and Austria.  Members of his wife’s family were killed during the French Revolution.  His wife was sent to prison but was freed with the help of Gouveurnor Morris, one of the leading men in America’s fight for freedom, and James Monroe, who eventually became the fourth president of the United States.  She was able to join him in prison in Austria.  He became known as the prisoner of Olmutz.  In 1797, he was finally released and went to live in Denmark for the rest of his life.  Finally in 1800, he was allowed to return to France.

Gouveurnor Morris

In 1824, he was 67 years old and he was invited to return to the United States.  He toured all the states ad spoke to those who came to see him.  One person commented he spoke very good English.  His response was:  “And why should I not speak English?  I am an American after all – just returned from a long visit in Europe.”  He toured the country for thirteen months.

In 1834, Lafayette died.  He was buried outside of Paris on a plot of land created from soil he brought back during his travels ten years before.  The soil was from Bunker Hill and Brandywine Creek.  He wanted to be buried on American soil.

Major Generals, Part 1

Who were the major players in the American Revolution?  

We usually devote a significant amount of time on the Founding Fathers – men of ideals who met and wrote down what would become the document our country would follow.  We do not usually spend much time on the men who fought the battles. Yes, we all know about George Washington, the Commander-in-Chief, but we know little about the other generals and men who led the ragtag group of colonists into battle against the best trained army in the world – the British.

Yorktown battlefield

Let’s outline the major players and then we will work on digging deeper into their backgrounds so we know more about these men.

THE PATRIOTS:

George Washington – Commander-in-Chief

Major Generals:

Benedict Arnold – until he turned traitor and joined the British

James Clinton

Horatio Gates

Nathanael Greene

Henry Knox (does this name sound familiar – Fort Knox)

Charles Lee

Friedrich von Steuben

Marquis de Lafayette

The list goes on, but these are the ones we have heard about the most, or who were the major players in the most significant battles.

THE BRITISH:

Commanders-in-Chiefs:

1763-1775 – Thomas Gage

1776-1777 – William Howe

1778-1782 – Sir Henry Clinton

Other generals:

John Burgoyne

Charles Cornwallis

 Their list of generals is also long, but we shall just focus on a few.

Let’s look at our Commander-in-Chief – George Washington and the first British Commander-in-Chief – Thomas Gage.

George Washington

George Washington – was born into a planter’s family and started his career as a surveyor.  When he joined the military, he was sent to fight against the French and Indians during that war.  It was here that he met Thomas Gage.  

The two men fought side-by-side and even developed a friendship that over the years cooled as they grew apart.  He became a member of the Continental Congress representing Virginia with men like Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson.  

Because of his skills as a soldier, he was asked to be the Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army.  While his troops suffered losses against the British in Boston, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, they always fought well. After a horrible winter at Valley Forge in Pennsylvania, they fought back strongly and began to win more battles.  

Many believe the most significant battle came in December of 1776 when the British had beaten the patriots at For Washington.  It seemed the patriots were about finished.  The British commander sent his men to Trenton for their winter quarters.  Washington decided to take his men across the Delaware to attack the British on Christmas day.  The British were protected by the German Hessians, but the patriots were able to take almost 1000 prisoners and killed 100 Hessians.  Only 4 patriots were killed or wounded that day. From there, the men were invigorated and prepared to win even more battles.

Finally, his troops defeated Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781. 

Because we have covered George Washington before, if you wish to read more, just click here.

Thomas Gage

Thomas Gage –was born in 1720 into an aristocratic English family.  Unfortunately, as a second son, he could not inherit the title and he joined the British army in 1736 when he was only 16 years old. 

In 1741, he purchased a lieutenant’s commission (a popular action on the part of a wealthy family, to make sure their sons became officers)

In 1743, he became a captain and participated in the War of Austrian Succession.

In 1746, he fought at the Battle of Culloden.

In 1748, he purchased a major’s commission.

In 1751, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel.

In 1755, he was sent to the Americas to fight in the French and Indian War.  This is where he met George Washington, fighting beside him.

In 1759, he became a full general and helped create the light infantry – a force he felt was better for fighting in the American wilderness.

In 1761, he became a major general.

In 1763, he was named the Commander-in-Chief of North America by King George. 

When tensions started to escalate in the colonies, he moved many of his troops to the major cities of New York and Boston.  This caused a problem for where the troops would live.  The Quartering Act solved that problem for him, forcing the colonists to house the troops in their homes, inns, taverns, and other buildings against their will.  He felt that occupying Boston was a mistake.  He felt the true causes of the rebellion were a few discontented wealthy men, not the rest of the community.  

Unfortunately, he moved the 29^th Regiment of Foot into Boston.  This regiment had a reputation for bad behavior.  By the time he realized it was not a few malcontents, but a major discontent among all the colonists, it was too late.

He was appointed military Royal Governor of Massachusetts.  Unfortunately, the people despised him.  Instead of relieving the problems of the previous governor, he enforced the Coercive Acts, called Intolerable by the colonists.  He even made the mistake of trying to buy off a few of the major political leaders of Boston.  This backfired on him.  When he tried to seize the weapons in Boston, his actions resulted in the Battles of Lexington and Concord.  

He sent word to the king about the defeat at Bunker Hill.  Within three days of receiving the message, King George relieved him of his commission and ordered him to return to England.  He was replaced by General Howe.

Just as the American Revolution was truly heating up, he was replaced.  In 1776, General Howe reached the shores of North America to find a powder keg of a situation.

Stay tuned to learn about General Howe in my next post.  Until then, Happy Memorial Day!  Huzzah!  Huzzah!  Huzzah! To all our troops who have served and continue to serve this great nation!  Thank you for your sacrifice.

Book of Manners

There is a lovely little book called "The School of Manners" or "Rules for Children's Behavior".  Printed in 1701 in England, children in the colonies were made to follow these rules every day.  The book includes rules for children at home, at church, at the table, when company comes to call, when speaking, when going abroad, and last but not least - at school.  The rules for school I am including below.  I think they will make even the students and other children in your life chuckle!!!

Rule 1. The first rule tells the children to bow when entering a room and if a boy, to take off one's hat and acknowledge each person in the room.

Rule 2. The second rule tells the children not to loiter, or hang about.

Rule 3. The third rule tells the students to stand when a stranger enters the classroom and then sit back down in silence.

Rule 4. The fourth rule tells the student to not stare if the school master is speaking to someone else.

Rule 5.  The fifth rule states the students should not interrupt the school master when speaking to someone else.  The school master will speak with the students when he is ready.

Rule 6. The sixth rule states the students shall not speak while in school. They must remain silent and peaceable at all times.

Rule 7.  The seventh rule states that when the master does speak to the students, the student should stand up and bow first, the listen closely, before answering.

Rule 8. The eighth rule states the children should not fight at school.  They should not complain or cry.  Most of all, the students should only speak when answering questions.

Rule 9. The ninth rule states the students should stand up and bow if a stranger speaks to them. They should give the same respect to the stranger as they would to the school master.

Rule 10. The tenth rule declares the student should not run when school is dismissed, but walk quietly.

Rule 11. The eleventh rule declares the students should go right home after school.  They should not speak to strangers or dilly dally, but go quietly home.

Rule 12. The last rule - the students are not to speak with anyone about what happens or is said at school.

Times have certainly changed since the 1700s, haven't they?

Stamp Act of 1765

On February 6th, 1765, George Grenville proposed the Stamp Bill before Parliament.  The bill was passed on February 17th (hey that would be today) and was passed by the House of Lords on March 8th.  Nearly two weeks later, the King ordered the bill into effect.  Since the national debt in Great Britain was 129 million pounds in 1764.  The British had accumulated this huge debt because of its military actions during the French and Indian War.  The British citizens would revolt if they were taxed any more - especially for a war that did not even occur on their land.

George Grenville

The Stamp Act was just one of several acts passed by the British government in an attempt to raise money to pay their rising debts.  The Stamp Act was passed on March 22, 1765 and required the colonists to pay a tax on every piece of printed paper.  A stamp was not like a postage stamp, but more like an embossed or raised stamp (think about a  notary republic and the stamp they make).  There were over 50 different taxes on the paper of every kind.  "for every skin or piece of vellum, or parchment, or sheet or piece of paper, one which shall be engrossed, written, or printed, any declaration plea, replication. rejoinder, demurrer or other pleading of any copy thereof; in any court of law within the British colonies and plantation American, a stamp duty of three pence."


The money collected by the Stamp Act was used to pay for the military campaigns in the Appalachian mountains.  Mostly these acts were passed to raise funds to pay for the French and Indian War.  What made the colonists angry was that they were not asked about the tax being placed upon them.  If the colonists allowed it to go through, they feared Britain would think they'd be able to pass any law without their consent. Of course there were many colonists - the Loyalists - who accepted the Act without fighting back.

Of course if you refused to pay the Stamp Act tax, you would be brought before the Vice Admiralty Court. These courts had no juries and yet could decide matters in the British colonies.  They usually just dealt with maritime affairs, having to do with the sea.  The judges were appointed by the king, so they sided with the king and were not impartial at all. The colonists knew this.

Patrick Henry wrote the Stamp Act Resolves - which stated the Americans had the same rights as the English - that taxation without their representation was wrong.  They should only pay taxes they voted on in the House of Burgesses or other local assemblies.  Four of Patrick Henry's resolves were adopted by the House.  Of course, in response to the resolves, Governor Fauquier dissolved the House of Burgesses.

Colonists hanging the Stamp Act in effigy

The Sons of Liberty formed as a result of the Stamp Act. Not only that, but on October 7, 1765, the Stamp Act Congress met in New York City. Twenty-seven delegates from 9 colonies gathered to discuss the situation.  They were lawyers, clergymen, journalists, and businessmen who wanted to send a message to the Crown. More would have attended if there had been time to travel the distance.  As it was, the 14 Point Declaration of Rights and Grievances was written with the help of John Dickinson.  If this sounds a lot like the Continental Congress and the Declaration of Independence, it is.  It became the precursor to what would create our country.  The only difference - while this declaration enumerated why these taxes could only be passed by colonial assemblies, it ended with the men stating their loyalty to the king.

"That it is inseparably essential to the freedoms of the people, and the undoubted right of Englishmen, that no taxes be imposed on them but with their own consent, given personally or by their representatives."

Britain soundly rejected the Declaration.

King George III

Many colonists rioted in response to the taxes.  They wanted to frighten the tax agents into backing down.  Shopkeepers refused to sell British goods as a result.

On March 17, 1766, the Stamp Act was repealed.  Unfortunately, the Declaratory Act was passed as a result.  This new act said that Great Britain was the boss of the colonies and had ultimate power.

The colonists were incensed.

The Boston Massacre

On March 5, 1770, British soldiers fired into a crowd and killed five men.

An anonymous account said, “The horrid massacre in Boston, perpetrated in the evening of the fifth day of March, 1770, by soldiers of the twenty-ninth regiment which with the fourteenth regiment were then quartered there; with some observations on the state of things prior to that catastrophe.”  The account goes on to tell about the climate of the area and the people living there.  He goes on to elaborate the many different occurrences which preclude this event. “The attack of a party of soldiers on some of the magistrates of the town – the repeated rescues of soldiers from peace officers – the firing of a loaded musket in a public street, to the endangering a great number of peaceable inhabitants – the frequent wounding of persons by their bayonets and cutlasses, and the numerous instances of bad behavior in the soldiers” made the colonists realize the soldiers were not there for peaceful reasons but to pressure the colonists to do what the Crown wanted.

In 1768, Britain sent Royal troops to enforce the taxes on the colonists.  The Townshend Acts were the colonists response to these heavy taxes being levied by Britain.

The Boston Massacre is considered by many as the first pivotal event in the American Revolution.  Emotions were heightened on both sides at this point.  Britain had sent soldiers to quell “the rebels” and make them fall back into line. The soldiers were forced into an untenable position – representing their home country and facing people who were clearly upset by policies made by the home country.

According to John Tudor, an eyewitness to the event, “a most horrid murder was committed on King Street.” On this Monday night, around nine o’clock, 8 soldiers fired into a crowd. Captain Thomas Preston, in command of the British soldiers, commanded the men to fire and three men were killed.  Apparently several boys and men were throwing snowballs at a British sentry outside the Customhouse. The other soldiers came to help him and soon a crowd had formed.  Captain Preston ordered the men back to the main guard.

According to the same anonymous person “Mr. Samuel Gray, killed on the spot by a ball entering his head.  Crispus Attucks, a mulatto, killed on the spot, two balls entering his breast. Mr. James Caldwell, killed on the spot, by two balls entering his back. Mr. Samuel Maverick, a youth of seventeen years of age, mortally wounded; he died the next morning. Mr. Patrick Carr mortally wounded; he died the 14^th instant. Christopher Monk and John Clark, youths about seventeen years of age, dangerously wounded. It is apprehended they will die. Mr. Edward Payne, merchant, standing at his door, wounded. Messrs. John Green, Robert Patterson, and David Parker; all dangerously wounded.”

What follows in the account is a description of what one man saw and heard. Much of it today would be called “hearsay” in a court of law, and unless the people could come before the judge and testify would not be admissible in the court.  The man contends that the argument between the colonists and soldiers actually began several days before that concerning several boxing matches that did not go well for the soldiers.  

Many people were overheard stating “there were a great many that would eat their dinners on Monday next, that should not eat on Tuesday.”  

A lady was overheard stating “the soldiers were in the right and that before Tuesday or Wednesday night they would wet their swords or bayonets in New England people’s blood”. 

These words could not but help enflaming the colonists against the British soldiers.

Lieutenant Governor Hutchinson was summoned and he ordered everyone to go home.  The captain was arrested and sent to jail where he was cross-examined by the magistrate.  By the next day, the 8 soldiers who fired on the crowd were also arrested.

According to Captain Preston (in his court account), threats were made against his soldiers on repeated occasions.  On the night in question, he was informed a crowd was forming.  The bell had been rung, which usually indicates a fire, but was actually summoning people to gather.  The captain was told the people were gathering in order to capture the sentry posted by the custom house and do him bodily harm.  The man declared he heard the mob declaring they would murder the sentry so he sent an officer and 12 men to protect the sentry and the king’s money at the custom house.  He declares his men attempted to push the colonists back and he did not call an order to fire on them. He states the colonists began to strike the bayonets with clubs and sticks and calling foul names at the soldiers “come on you rascals, you bloody backs, you lobster scoundrels” and more. He continued to state he would never order his men to fire upon the crowd but he could not stop what happened next.  One soldier’s rifle was struck so hard, he stumbled to the side and it fired.  Even as he questioned the man, the captain himself was struck with a club on his arm, making it almost useless.  He swears that he never ordered his men to fire.  He states that the colonists continued to yet at them to fire and probably in the chaos, some men thought the order was called by him and did indeed fire upon the colonists.  He then explains how he yelled repeatedly to stop firing but because of the chaos, his orders were not heard.

Robert Goddard had a different view of the events than Captain Preston.  According to him “The captain was behind the soldiers. The captain told them to fire.  One gun went off.  A sailor to townsman struck the captain.  He thereupon said **** your bloods fire think I’ll be treated in this manner.  This man that struck the captain came from among the people who were seven feet off and were round on one wing. I saw no person speak to him. I was so near I should have seen it. After the captain said **** your bloods fire, they all fired one after another about 7 or 8 in all, and then the officer bid Prime and load again. He stood behind all the time. Mr. Lee went up the officer and called the officer by name Captain Preston.”

As you can see, the accounts are very different.  Imagine being a juror on the case and hearing such different accounts of the same event.  Ah, but the jurors were not from Boston at all. This was done on purpose to give the men a fair trial. The trial itself did not take place for several months to allow emotions to cool down.  Two jurors were from Roxbury, two from Dorchester, one from Braintree, Stoughton, and Dedham, two from Milton, and three from Hingham.

The people of Boston were upset by the situation and lack of action.  More than 3,000 people gathered and ordered the governor to send the troops back to Britain. Colonel Darlrymple agreed this would be the best course of action in order to restore order to the town.  Four of the men who were killed were buried in a single grave.  Those murdered were: Samuel Gray, Samuel Maverick, James Caldwell, and Crispus Attucks.  The town shut down in respect for those who died. A long procession was led through the town.  More than 20,000 people were thought to have gathered for the procession.

The trial lasted 5 days.  The soldiers who were involved in the Boston Massacre were defended by John Adams. 

Why would John Adams, a very vocal opponent of British occupation take on such a case?  At that time, no one would take on the case.  The people of Boston were too polarized in their opinions of the incident and many were against the British Crown and the soldiers.  Most of the lawyers were certain that if they should take on the case, their careers would be ruined.  Not John Adams.  He felt the men deserved a fair trial and agreed to represent them. This was not an easy decision for him.  He received death threats and many were suspicious of him even though he felt these men deserved a fair trial.  He wrote in his diary, “the part I took in defense of captain Preston and the soldiers, procured me anxiety, and obloquy enough. It was, however, one of the most gallant, generous, manly and disinterested actions of my whole life, and one of the best pieces of service I ever rendered my country. Judgment of death against these soldiers would have been as foul a stain upon this country as the executions of the Quakers or witches, anciently.”

The soldiers were accused of murder, but were acquitted.  Two were found guilty of manslaughter. On October 24, 1770, Captain Preston was found innocent of all charges because it could not be proven that he ordered the soldiers to fire.  Kilroy and Montgomery, the two soldiers found guilty, faced the death penalty.  They attempted to escape execution by reciting Psalm 51, verse 1. Both men were branded with “M” on their right thumbs for “murder”.

Captain Preston left Boston and returned to England.  The other soldiers returned to the 29^th Regiment which had left Boston not long after the massacre.

With emotions running high on both sides, propaganda began to circulate to further incite the colonists and Loyalists.

Samuel Adams, John Adams’ cousin, wrote articles in the Boston Gazette that stated the soldiers got away with blood on their hands.  He continued to keep the Boston Massacre alive in people’s minds and even organized yearly gatherings on March 5^th to commemorate the event.

If you want to learn more about the Boston Massacre, there is a fabulous site www.bostonmassacre.net/trial/index.htm  If you go there, you will be able to read depositions from many people who were there as well as read newspaper accounts of the event. You can also read John Adams’ speech for the men’s defense.  Many people criticized Adams for taking on this case. 

The 2nd Continental Congress

After King George III read the initial petition from the 1^st Continental Congress and rejected it, the colonists knew they would need to meet again. The Battles of Lexington and Concord had been fought and people’s emotions were high. Great Britain would not listen to their requests. While many wanted to break away, others still wanted to remain loyal. The discussions would be heated as each argued their side.

They officially met on May 10^th, 1776 at the State House in Philadelphia (we know it now as Independence Hall).  After long discussions and debates, the delegates agreed to break away from Great Britain and placed the colonies on alert. Be prepared for battle so they began to organize a militia.

The men gathered in Philadelphia once more for the 2^nd Continental Congress on July 22, 1776. Peyton Randolph, the president of the 1^st Continental Congress had passed away. John Hancock replaced him. This was merely days after the Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4^th of that same year. A few new members joined the previous group – Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Hancock, and Richard Henry Lee. 

The Congress was split into radicals and conservatives.  The radicals included John Adams, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry Lee.  The conservatives included John Dickinson.

While the Congress had no legal rights according to the king, they still governed the new colonies and took steps to shape themselves into a country.  Some changes they made:

1.      The creation of a continental army with George Washington as their commander.  This decision was made on June 14, 1776.  Washington was elected unanimously because of his military skills. The ensuing battles would be bloody. They knew Great Britain was known to have the best army in the world.  This thought frightened many and yet they knew they had no choice – either fight or continue to let Great Britain disregard their thoughts and requests.

2.      Foreign policy – extending the Olive Branch Petition to King George III.  The Olive Branch Petition – Because many did not want to declare their independence, the Olive Branch Petition was signed and delivered to King George personally. The colonists placed the guilt on Parliament, thinking the King was unaware of Parliament’s decisions. Richard Penn delivered the petition to Lord Dartmouth – the Secretary of State for the colonies.  King George refused to read it.  Instead, the king proclaimed the colonies were in a state of “full-scale rebellion”.

3.      Issuing money and fundraising to pay for the war – Printing their own money was important. Until this time, the colonies were accepting money from various countries in forms of trade or using goods as a means to barter for what they needed. Now, with war on the horizon, they could not count on other resources to raise money. The need for a monetary system that all states could use and count on was imperative.

4.      Acceptance of the Declaration of Independence – Thomas Jefferson was the answer to their prayers. Known as a prolific and well-versed writer, he was given the auspicious duty along with John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman. Jefferson is known to have written it, but the other men collaborated, offering their advice.

The Continental Congress formed an army – the Continental Army. They needed a commander for the army and called up George Washington to take on the duty. They also set up provisions for printing money for the colonies. They became a governing body with different divisions. At first, they did not want to seek independence and sent the Olive Branch Petition to King George III.  Of course the Olive Branch Petition did not have the desired effect.  The petition asked for a peaceful resolution to the conflicts and declared their loyalty to the Crown. Unfortunately the king refused the Olive Branch Petition and told Parliament to squash the rebellion in the colonies.  Then the King hired the Hessians to go against the colonists and bring them under control.

The members of the Continental Congress were labeled outlaws by the British government and prices were set for their capture.  Men like Peyton Randolph (when he was alive), Thomas Jefferson, and John Hancock had to go into hiding many times to keep away from British soldiers who were offered rewards to capture them.

Once the Declaration of Independence was signed and forwarded to all the colonies, the delegates remained to discuss any further actions.  They were forced to leave the city when British troops invaded and took over Philadelphia. The men debated for many months before coming up with the Articles of Confederation. Finally in November of 1777, the articles were sent to the states for ratification.  Finally in March of 1781, the articles were ratified by all the states.

Without the determination of the delegates to come to a compromise, the United States of America would never have been formed. The men who were gathered set aside their own lives, their families, their businesses, and more to create our country. They learned to set aside their differences as well as they collaborated to create the Declaration of Independence as well as the Articles of Confederation.

Here's a big "Huzzah! Huzzah!" to those brave men and the women who stayed home to take care of business while the men ironed out their differences.

The First Continental Congress

Before the Continental Congress met several events occurred.  The first – the Boston Tea Party.  The second was the Intolerable Acts instituted by Britain where the Boston Harbor was closed until the tea was paid for, and the governor of Massachusetts was given the power of a dictator. These acts incited the colonists to band together and call for action. This meeting became known as the 1^st Continental Congress.

The First Continental Congress met from September 5^th to October 26^th in 1774.  The members from every colony except Georgia met at Carpenter’s Hall in Philadelphia where the Pennsylvania Congress usually met.  Georgia was busy with problems with Creek Indian nation and needed Britain’s help in fighting them. The men who came to discuss the future of this fledgling country were elected by the people, by committees, or by legislatures in the various colonies.  Some of the men who attended are names we recognize today: John Adams (our second president)and his cousin, Samuel Adams from Massachusetts Bay colony, John Jay (our first Supreme Court Justice) from New York, John Dickinson from Pennsylvania, Peyton Randolph (who becomes the president of the 1^st Continental Congress), Richard Henry Lee, George Washington (the leader of our army and our first president), and Patrick Henry (Give me liberty!).  There are forty six other names on the list for a total of 56 delegates – none less important than the men already mentioned, but just not as well known.  Every man was given only 1 vote.

Of course they all wanted to show Great Britain and the king they were unified in their arguments over what should be allowed or not, and yet they disagreed on other points.  For instance, the delegates from Pennsylvania and New York actually thought they (the men who gathered) could resolve the issues with Great Britain (who really didn’t want to resolve anything – they wanted the colonies to just follow their rules).

In May of the same year, the House of Burgesses in Virginia held its own special convention to elect delegates to meet and discuss the issues. Thomas Jefferson (whose name is not mentioned above) actually introduced his own view of the rights in a document called “Summary View of the Rights of Great Britain”.  This first Continental Congress did not ask for freedom from Great Britain.  What they really wanted was Great Britain to recognize wrongs done to the colonists.  They wanted to be heard in Parliament.

Peyton Randolph's portrait (from his home in Williamsburg)

John Galloway, from Pennsylvania, presented his own plan which was mostly supported (only 6 were opposed). Many of the colonists supported his plan.  Remember many still wanted to resolve the issues with Britain. Without the support of everyone present, the plan fell through. Some believed it failed because of the Suffolk Resolves. These resolves declared the Coercive Acts unconstitutional and illegal; urged Massachusetts to become a free state; wanted any taxes collected to be held by the government and not given to Britain; asked everyone to support a boycott of British goods; asked for the development of a militia; stated than anyone who arrested citizens would also be arrested; and finally that the colonists did not owe any loyalty to the King who violated their rights.  Paul Revere brought a set of these resolves to the Continental Congress.  While some were opposed to these drastic measures, they were passed by the majority of members.

Next came the Association – where a total boycott was called for of non-importation, non-exportation, and non-consumption agreements. Every community would enforce the boycott – publishing the names of merchants who defied the boycott. They could confiscate contraband, and could encourage the people economize.

From here, the Continental Congress put together a list of grievances to submit to King George III. They announced the colonists had certain rights – “life, liberty, and property, and they have never ceded to any sovereign power whatever a right to dispose of either without their consent.”  The key point in this list was – it was address to the King, not to Parliament because the colonists felt the Parliament did not have the authority to regulate their trade.  The colonists wanted their grievances addressed by the king.  Once the declaration was sent to the King, the men had no choice but to wait for their reaction and pray the King would see their position and agree they had been wronged.

On October 25^th, 1774 – the petition is signed and sent to the King.

George III

To read journals about the 1^st Continental Congress written by its secretary, Charles Thomson – go to www.locweb2.loc.gov/amlaw/lwjc.html

So what happened when King George received these Suffolk Resolves?  On November 30^th, 1774, King George III condemned Massachusetts and the resolves.  Obviously the king did not feel the colonies had the right to send him a petition, and he especially did not feel they had rights.  Something would have to be done with those upstart colonists!!!

The Pamunkey and Jamestown

Who were the Pamunkey?

Before the English arrived in Virginia, there were the Pamunkey.  They are one of 11 tribes and the one many remember due to their relationship with the English in Jamestown. Part of the Algonquian speaking tribes, they lived in the Virginia area between the tidewater of Virginia and Maryland for over 12,000 years. Like others of their time, they lived off the land, working it and hunting the animals in order to survive.  The Native Americans believed in creating a bond with the environment in order to continue their way of life. They left nothing to waste and believed in wasting nothing. This meant they only killed the animals they needed or picked the food necessary for immediate survival. When settlers arrived from Europe, life changed dramatically for the Pamunkey.

There were anywhere between 10,000 and 25,000 people living in Virginia at the time the English arrived in 1607. While the Pamunkey are one of two tribes currently still living in Virginia, there were many more four hundred years ago.

So what happened to the Pamunkey?

Two words – urban sprawl.  Today, when we hear that word, we think of when people move into an unpopulated area, build homes, and destroy the environment around them as they take over the natural resources.  This is exactly what happened to Virginia’s unspoiled land and resources, as well as the Pamunkey back in 1607. Today only two tribes survive In Virginia and live on a reservation of about 700 acres.  Other members live all across the country, living their daily lives amongst the rest of the Americans, having assimilated to their culture and losing their own. Those who remain on the reservation, keep the ways of their people alive through tradition.

According to the Virginia Charter, all the land “between eight and thirty degrees of the said latitude, and five and forty degrees of the same latitude;. And that they shall have all the lands, soils, grounds, havens, ports, rivers, mines, minerals, woods, marshes, waters, fishings, commodities, and hereditaments, whatsoever from the frist seat of their plantation and habitation by the space of fifty like English miles as is aforesaid, all alongst the coast of Virginia and America,….” 

Just imagine then, if you landed there, you felt the land was yours, not the natives. Or imagine if you were a native and wanted to move their village to another, more fertile location. What would happen?

Most people are familiar with the story of Captain John Smith arriving in Virginia in England’s quest for gold and riches. While they did not find gold, they did find a land rich in resources. Powhatan (Wahunsenacawh) was the leader of the Pamunkey tribe at that time. His daughter was Pocahontas, who was kidnapped by the English for several years. His brother, Opechancanough fought for peace when the settlers tried to kick the Native Americans off their land.  Over the upcoming years, many treaties were signed that eventually weren’t worth much more than the paper they were printed on.  The government had a way of reneging on their deals.

When the settlers first arrived, they were unprepared for the harsh weather along the James River (named after King James). Many got sick and died. Through it all, Powhatan tried to help the settlers by sending food supplies and other goods necessary for survival.  Still many died. They passed strange illnesses on to the Native Americans who had never been exposed to such virulent diseases before so, they too, perished. The relationship between the settlers and the natives was a strained one.  The settlers saw many of them as “naked devils” or “red devils” because of the color of their skin.  The natives saw the English as greedy and destructive because they took over the land, destroying the resources, and ordering the Pamunkey to move.

Much to the dismay of the Pamunkey, the colonists did not repay the favor by accepting the native’s theory of being good to the Earth and its animals. They came to strip the land of its bounty and ship it back to London. Whereas the natives only took what they needed to survive, the English took what they could to make money, often stripping the area of all resources. When they first arrived, the settlers thought they would find gold – the assumption made because of the riches the Spanish had found in Central and South America. Those riches were not found in Virginia.  But they did find another type of gold – tobacco. The only problem with tobacco – it depleted the land of nutrients and left it unfarmable for many years afterwards.  If the settlers did not rotate their crops, they would destroy all the land around them in their thirst for wealth through a crop – tobacco.

Chief Powhatan even reached out to the British monarch, James I and sent him a deerskin. The Pamunkey were a peaceful tribe and did not seek out hostilities with the English.  They merely wanted to hunt and fish as they needed. They saw the land as belonging to everyone and no one – that it must be shared, but the English did not see it that way.  Once they staked a claim on their parcel of land, they did not want anyone stepping on it – especially the natives who scared them.

Hostilities arose between the two peoples and many battles ensued.  Called “the Dark Days”, many people from both sides – English and Pamunkey alike, perished. From 1610-1646, the conflicts were known as the Anglo-Powhatan Wars.  People were not just killed by battle, but by disease, something they could not fight with weapons.  The colonists continued to illegally steal land from the Native Americans, even though they had made promises to Chief Powhatan and other Pamunkey. There were two treaties made with the Pamunkey.

The first treaty was in 1646 – This treaty was signed by Necotowance, who took over for Opechancanough. The treaty provided land for the Pamunkey. This land would be protected for them by the King if they provided tribute to the crown (in the order of 20 beaver pelts). The English would leave the natives alone north of the York River. The land between the York and James Rivers would belong to the English and if the natives wanted to travel across that land, they would have to get permission.  The English would have to get permission to cut down trees on the north side of the York or they would be tried for the offense.  South of the James River, the natives could only move between the Blackwater River and English plantations. If the English were caught harboring natives in their lands, they would be punished. Natives to the south had to wear special badges and could trade at Fort Henry or Captain Flood’s home. The tribal leader, Necotowance had to oversee the return of guns, English prisoners, Negroes, and Indian servants to the English.  Native children under the age of 12 could be kept as servants and could live in English homes.

Royal Brooch given to Weoansqua Cckacoeske

The second one in 1677 was the Treaty of Middle Plantation and was signed after Bacon’s Rebellion (see below). A royal brooch was given to the queen of the Pamunkey, Weoansqua Cockacoeske.  She was given this engraved frontlet after the treaty was signed.  This treaty promised to preserve the reservations’ boundaries and to provide equal justice to Indians in English courts. Of course, the English did not honor this treaty either. 

The Articles of Peace - At this time, King Charles II was in power.  According to the Virginia Colonial records, the Indian kings and queens would not only recognize the English kings, but they would pay tribute to them. The articles also called for lands to be turned over to England and a yearly fee be paid. The articles stated that as long as the Indians paid proper tribute, their lands would not be taken away from them. It calls for a distance of three miles to be kept – the English agree not to encroach on those lands, and the same for the Indians. Finally, the Indians shall be able to defend their land if the English should injure them in any way.  Many more articles such as these follow, delineating exactly what the Pamunkey could and could not do.  Remember those boundaries?

The Pamunkey tried to maintain their boundaries, but this was difficult.

Bacon’s Rebellion:

Many people did not like the way Governor Berkeley was ruling. The main reasons include: restricting voting rights to only those who owned land, higher taxes, low tobacco prices, a rising aristocracy, and many people not feeling safe against attacks by the Native Americans. Unfortunately, the land set aside for the Pamunkey and other natives was being taken over by more and more settlers. Since Berkeley would not take action against the natives for the attacks.

Bacon’s Rebellion in 1675 occurred because of repeated attacks on tribes that were loyal to the English.  A man called Nathaniel Bacon and his supporters did not agree with Governor Berkeley’s policies with the Pamunkey and other natives living in the area.  Bacon incited several tribes to attack each other, then his group of men followed afterwards, killing men, women, and children at the village.  Because of his success, he was elected to the House of Burgesses.

The governor called for new elections.  With Bacon gone for long periods of time, the governor felt he was neglecting his duties so he hoped to have Bacon removed.  Once Bacon was released, he raised a small army.  Many reforms were set into place but Bacon returned to Jamestown. He demanded the militia go after the natives. Berkeley was chased from Virginia and the capital was burned. Bacon got dysentery and died in the fall of 1676.

Berkeley was furious when he returned with soldiers of his own and seized the land of men who were involved. Twenty-three men were hanged, including the former governor of Albemarle Sound colony – William Drummond.  King Charles II was upset when he read the report and relived Berkeley of his command, ordering him to return to England. Once the natives realized they had little chance of winning against the guns and other weapons of the English, they signed the peace treaty of 1677.

This treaty allowed the Pamunkey to rule as they had before, to hunt and fish on their lands, to be given the means to protect themselves if needed, and many more contingencies. Click here to see the rest of the treaty outlined by the English government.

While the colonists considered the Native Americans to be independent and sovereign, the US government did not recognize them as a sovereign nation. 

Life for the Pamunkey

The Pamunkey lived in long narrow homes called yihakans.  We call them longhouses.  The buildings have a long barrel shape and were made from bent saplings. The covering was constructed from bark.  The inside was cool in the summer and warm in the winter. A center fire heated the enclosed building keeping family members warm and toasty as well as providing a place to cook their food. The benches along the sides served multiple purposes – beds for sleeping and chairs for sitting, as well as storage when needed.

Their homes were semi-permanent because the natives only resided in an area for 10 years.  Once the land became fallow, they would move on to a new area to reside but always maintained homes near rivers and a major food source. The river provided an excellent source of food as well as the woods for hunting. This is one reason the English had disputes with the Pamunkey. As the natives prepared to move on, the English would feel uneasy and there would be fighting between the two peoples. The natives believed they could hunt on any land they wished, but the English believed the land belonged to them.

We are all familiar with Chief Powhatan, but in reality he was voted into power by the people. They also voted on the other 7 members of the council to help administer their laws. They had a very democratic system, not unlike what we do today – they had two candidates and voted. The man with the most votes won the election (or woman). The remaining council members were voted on in the same manner.